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		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">cebape</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Cadernos EBAPE.BR</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Cad. EBAPE.BR</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">1679-3951</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Fundação Getulio Vargas, Escola Brasileira de Administração Pública e de Empresas</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/1679-395120230009</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">00005</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Crimes estatais-corporativos e violações de direitos humanos: um ensaio sobre a relação simbiótica entre Estados e corporações</article-title>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="en">
					<trans-title>State-corporate crimes and human rights violations: an essay on the symbiotic relationship between states and corporations</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
				<trans-title-group xml:lang="es">
					<trans-title>Crímenes estatales-corporativos y violaciones a los derechos humanos: un ensayo sobre la relación simbiótica entre Estados y corporaciones</trans-title>
				</trans-title-group>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="editor">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8712-6102</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ferreira</surname>
						<given-names>Letícia Gracielle Vieira</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<role>Conceituação (Igual)</role>
					<role>Escrita - rascunho original (Liderança)</role>
					<role>Escrita - revisão e edição (Igual)</role>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="editor">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7999-9002</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Cíntia Rodrigues de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1b"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<role>Conceituação (Igual)</role>
					<role>Escrita - rascunho original (Liderança)</role>
					<role>Escrita - revisão e edição (Igual)</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia- MG, Brasil</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Uberlândia</named-content>
          	<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<email>leticia.ferreira@uftm.edu.br</email>
				</aff>
				<aff id="aff1b">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia- MG, Brasil</institution>
					<institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Uberlândia</named-content>
          	<named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<email>cintia@ufu.br</email>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
					<p>Letícia Gracielle Vieira Ferreira - Doutoranda em Administração pelo Programa de Pós-Graduação em Administração da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU). E-mail: leticia.ferreira@uftm.edu.br</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
					<p>Cíntia Rodrigues de Oliveira - Doutora em Administração pela Fundação Getulio Vargas (FGV EAESP); Professora da Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU). E-mail: cintia@ufu.br</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by" id="fn4">
					<p>Hélio Arthur Reis Irigaray (Fundação Getulio Vargas, Rio de Janeiro / RJ - Brasil). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9580-7859</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by" id="fn5">
					<p>Fabricio Stocker (Fundação Getulio Vargas, Rio de Janeiro / RJ - Brasil). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6340-9127</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<!--<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>20</day>
				<month>02</month>
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>-->
			<pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
				<year>2024</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>22</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>e2023-0009</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>06</month>
					<year>2023</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
					<license-p>Este é um artigo publicado em acesso aberto sob uma licença Creative Commons</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>Nesse ensaio buscamos ampliar a compreensão dos crimes estatais-corporativos que violam direitos humanos por meio de uma aproximação da literatura do crime-estatal corporativo com campo dos estudos organizacionais. Argumentamos que crimes corporativos violadores de direitos humanos são (re)produzidos com a participação do Estado, em função das lacunas de governança estabelecidas pela globalização, criando uma relação simbiótica que potencializa a normalização de tais infrações. Nossa argumentação é a de que tal problema resulta de uma articulação deliberadamente organizada e constituída, historicamente, por meio de relações de poder, que visam garantir uma ordem social centrada na manutenção dos interesses capitalistas, modo de produção em que vida, morte e violência são normalizadas.</p>
			</abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>In this essay, we seek to expand the understanding of state-corporate crimes that violate human rights by approximating the literature on state-corporate crime with the field of organizational studies. We argue that corporate crimes that violate human rights are produced and reproduced with the state’s participation in the governance gaps established by globalization in a symbiotic relationship that enhances their normalization. Our argument advances toward unveiling the problem as a configuration resulting from a deliberately organized and historically constituted articulation based on power relations, which aims to guarantee a social order centered on maintaining capitalist interests in which the exploration of life, death, and violence are normalized.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
				<title>Resumen</title>
				<p>En este ensayo buscamos ampliar la comprensión de los crímenes estatales-corporativos que violan los derechos humanos a través de una aproximación de la literatura sobre delitos estatales-corporativos al campo de los estudios organizacionales. Defendemos el argumento de que los crímenes corporativos violatorios de los derechos humanos se producen y reproducen con la participación del Estado, debido a las brechas de gobernabilidad establecidas por la globalización, en una relación simbiótica que potencia su normalización. Nuestro argumento es que dicho problema resulta de una articulación deliberadamente organizada e históricamente constituida a partir de relaciones de poder, que pretende garantizar un orden social centrado en el mantenimiento de los intereses capitalistas, un modo de producción en el que la vida, la muerte y la violencia están normalizadas.</p>
			</trans-abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
				<kwd>Crime estatal-corporativo</kwd>
				<kwd>Violência</kwd>
				<kwd>Corporações</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>State-corporate crime</kwd>
				<kwd>Violence</kwd>
				<kwd>Corporations</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
				<title>Palabras clave:</title>
				<kwd>Crimen estatal-corporativo</kwd>
				<kwd>Violencia</kwd>
				<kwd>Corporaciones</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<funding-group>
				<award-group award-type="contract">
					<funding-source>Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico</funding-source>
					<award-id>423009/2021-4 </award-id>
					<award-id>313900/2021-3</award-id>
				</award-group>
			</funding-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="0"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="100"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>INTRODUÇÃO</title>
			<p>O grande número de notícias sobre o envolvimento de organizações em condutas criminosas expressa a condição endêmica dos crimes corporativos na contemporaneidade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>). Em parte, isto resulta dos esforços empreendidos por governos e corporações para invisibilizar tais crimes e seus danos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Barak, 2015</xref>), uma vez que são amparados por uma ordem jurídica que não os penaliza e por uma retórica de que a acumulação de capital favorece o bem-estar dos cidadãos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">Barak, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Até mesmo acadêmicos e economistas que se dedicam a análises do desenvolvimento econômico e dos negócios internacionais reconhecem a ausência de estruturas conceituais integradas e multidisciplinares que deem conta das complexas e abrangentes consequências dos negócios internacionais sobre a economia e a sociedade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">Giuliane &amp; Macchi, 2014</xref>). Ao analisar o processo de globalização e seus impactos sobre as economias em desenvolvimento, economistas têm alertado sobre o descompasso entre os incentivos privados e os custos e benefícios sociais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Stiglitz, 2006</xref>), bem como sobre os efeitos distributivos da globalização e seu potencial para o agravamento da pobreza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Rodrick, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>As corporações transnacionais, personificação mais visível da globalização, são atores poderosos, com influência para moldar a agenda de governança global (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Ruggie, 2007</xref>), pois usam a base legal e a infraestrutura oferecida pelos Estados para exercer sua função de instituição primária por meio da qual o capitalismo se reproduz, apesar de seus efeitos nocivos sobre a vida humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Nas últimas duas décadas, cresceram os litígios contra corporações por violações de direitos humanos, mas a compensação raramente foi alcançada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Schrempf-Stirling &amp; Wettstein, 2017</xref>). No âmbito das iniciativas de <italic>soft law</italic>, desde o Pacto Global da ONU foram definidos os Princípios Orientadores da ONU sobre Empresas e Direitos Humanos [UNGPs] (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">ONU, 2011</xref>), uma iniciativa pioneira em direção a um amplo consenso em relação à existência de uma responsabilidade corporativa de respeitar os direitos humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2022</xref>). No entanto, a fragilidade desse viés está na falta de efeito vinculante ou na incapacidade de aplicação de penalidades, o que transfere a responsabilidade de sua implementação aos Estados e à boa vontade corporativa (Baneerje, 2014; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Bernaz, 2013</xref>).</p>
			<p>Frequentemente, ao priorizar os objetivos de seus acionistas e o lucro máximo em suas operações, as corporações transnacionais apoiam-se na confluência do capitalismo global para investir estrategicamente em economias emergentes - caracterizadas, em sua maioria, por uma governança fraca e pela corrupção -, nas quais as corporações apenas serão penalizadas por violarem direitos humanos se suas ações forem reconhecidas como crimes internacionais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Bernaz, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Ullah et al., 2021</xref>). Por sua vez, em benefício da economia e do investimento direto estrangeiro, os governos anfitriões são coniventes com os abusos, ao se absterem de exigir de tais corporações atenção aos padrões de respeito aos direitos humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Chu, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Ratner, 2001</xref>).</p>
			<p>Neste ensaio, a concepção de corporações transnacionais que nos interessa é aquela explorada pela literatura pós-colonialista, que as considera atores centrais para a promoção e difusão do capitalismo e de práticas econômicas imperialistas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Mir et al., 2008</xref>). Desse modo, localizamos as corporações como parte da classe impulsionadora do capitalismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">Sklair, 2002</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">2016</xref>) e cujos poderes não reconhecem fronteiras, configurando-se, por vezes, como máquinas de criação de riqueza desgovernadas e potencialmente prejudiciais à sociedade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bakan, 2004</xref>), dentre as quais estão inseridas as necrocorporações, cujas ações e omissões concretizam crimes corporativos contra a vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Medeiros &amp; Silveira, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Os arranjos de criminalidade entre Estados e corporações têm sido acompanhados pela literatura criminológica, na qual categorias surgiram como ferramentas teóricas para compreensão dos crimes de alto escalão e como uma resposta à falta de reparação legal para os danos causados por atores poderosos que, historicamente, conseguiram escapar da criminalização e estigmatização (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Barak, 2015</xref>). Nessa literatura, o conceito de <italic>state-corporate crime</italic>, termo traduzido literalmente por crime estatal-corporativo, coloca no centro de suas preocupações a compreensão de como o Estado ou participa ou facilita a produção de crimes corporativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>No processo de constituição das organizações modernas e de suas formas de controle, uma parcela significativa das regiões empobrecidas na atualidade teve suas riquezas expropriadas pelas potências coloniais, que também foram responsáveis por implementar, em suas colônias, um discurso homogeneizador que negava a legitimidade do conhecimento e dos modos de organização dessas localidades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Mir et al., 2003</xref>). O pensamento pós-colonial estabelece novas compreensões sobre a história desse processo nas sociedades pós-coloniais com a crítica às relações desiguais estabelecidas entre o Norte e o Sul globais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Oliveira &amp; Silveira, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>Considerando a relevante ameaça dos crimes corporativos cometidos por corporações e Estados à manutenção e reprodução da vida, e a crescente banalização e normalização da morte subentendida na ordem capitalista, neste ensaio, argumentamos que os crimes corporativos violadores de direitos humanos são produzidos e reproduzidos com a participação do Estado, nas lacunas de governança estabelecidas pela globalização, em uma relação simbiótica entre Estados e corporações, possibilitando sua normalização. Esse fenômeno é relevante para o campo dos estudos organizacionais, visto que a literatura internacional tem mostrado interesse em relação ao tema; porém, em âmbito nacional, é recente a produção acadêmica na área de Administração, especialmente Administração Pública, sobre crimes corporativos e state-corporate crime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Medeiros et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>). Assim, a contribuição desta pesquisa, para além de discutir conceitualmente a produção de crimes corporativos com a participação do Estado, está em chamar a atenção para um fenômeno organizacional discutido de forma individualizada, o que não contribui para o entendimento de sua complexidade.</p>
			<p>Inicialmente, oferecemos o contexto teórico que envolve as relações simbióticas entre Estados-corporações; em seguida, com base na perspectiva pós-colonialista, buscamos ampliar a compreensão do crime estatal-corporativo nas violações de direitos humanos. Por fim, apresentamos nossas conclusões e sugestões de pesquisas.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>A RELAÇÃO SIMBIÓTICA ENTRE ESTADOS E CORPORAÇÕES</title>
			<p>A afirmativa de que a escala de danos causada por crimes corporativos supera a de todos os demais crimes não pode ser facilmente contraposta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>). No entanto, as definições de crime corporativo, em geral, estão centralizadas nos desvios cometidos por corporações em relação às normas legais. A concepção mais aceita de crime corporativo é orientada de uma perspectiva legalista, em que o termo é definido como atividades corporativas que violam leis penais e cujo processo resulta na condenação da empresa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Baucus &amp; Dworkin, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">Schlegel, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Shapiro, 1990</xref>).</p>
			<p>Dentro desse espectro, crimes corporativos envolvem uma ampla tipologia de atos ilegais ou omissões por organizações e seus atores em benefício destas, na medida em que exploram brechas legais presentes na economia global e se utilizam da conformidade criativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">Van Erp &amp; Huisman, 2017</xref>). Não obstante, as ideias principais sobre a temática, bem como as práticas regulamentadas sobre o crime e seu controle são orientadas por interesses econômicos e necessidades do capitalismo. Com isso, uma parte significativa de condutas danosas praticadas por pessoas e grupos que detêm poder político e econômico é tratada como atividade não criminosa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Bernat &amp; Whyte, 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>Particularmente, o paradigma do <italic>state-corporate crime</italic>, cunhado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Kramer e Michalowski na década de 1990</xref>, apresenta uma estrutura conceitual madura e potente, com uma história de mais de oito décadas de esforços teóricos para compreensão dos crimes dos poderosos, desde o trabalho desenvolvido por Sutherland (1949) sobre os crimes do colarinho branco até as noções de crime político e crime organizacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Griffin &amp; Spillane, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>A versão revisada do conceito define como crime estatal-corporativo “[...] ações ilegais ou socialmente lesivas que ocorrem quando uma ou mais instituições de governança política perseguem um objetivo em cooperação direta com uma ou mais instituições de produção e distribuição econômica” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Kramer &amp; Michalowski, 1990</xref>, p. 4). Como parte do amadurecimento do modelo teórico proposto para análise do fenômeno, duas alternativas analíticas foram propostas; o crime estatal-corporativo “iniciado pelo Estado”, quando corporações empregadas pelo governo estão envolvidas em desvio organizacional, seja por direção ou aprovação tácita do governo; e o crime estatal-corporativo “facilitado pelo Estado”, quando instituições estatais reguladoras falham em restringir atividades econômicas desviantes, por conluio direto entre corporações e governos, ou em virtude de adesão a objetivos compartilhados que poderiam ser dificultados por uma regulamentação mais rígida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Kramer et al., 2002</xref>).</p>
			<p>O arcabouço teórico sobre crime estatal-corporativo é relevante por destacar os efeitos danosos e, por vezes, mortais das iniciativas cooperativas estabelecidas entre Estados e corporações, em razão de seus interesses comuns (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Bradshaw, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Friedrichs &amp; Rothe, 2014</xref>) e da existência de um sistema legal paralelo. Isso leva à discussão sobre a deficiência de regulação estatal, ocasionada não só internamente, mas, também, por fatores exógenos ao Estado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Medeiros et al., 2020</xref>). Ademais, tal arcabouço busca compreender como, na interseção dos interesses corporativos e estatais, certos comportamentos nocivos e socialmente danosos são considerados como não criminosos, seja por falta de previsões legais ou regulatórias, seja pela inércia daqueles que deveriam fazer cumprir as leis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Kramer et al. 2002</xref>).</p>
			<p>Um aspecto comum aos crimes estatais corporativos reside no fato de que todos eles são convencionalizados e normalizados por meio da lei e de processos regulatórios, ou seja, na maioria dos crimes analisados, os danos causados ocorrem porque o Estado foi obedecido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>). Os crimes cometidos por Estados e grandes corporações envolvem sempre, em alguma medida, a interação e cooperação, implícita ou explicita, entre essas duas instituições. Desse modo, desvincular os interesses estatais dos corporativos torna-se problemático pela coincidência das agendas dos atores que estão nas hierarquias organizacionais e estatais e pelas múltiplas conexões estabelecidas no fluxo de ocupação de altos cargos nas esferas corporativa e estatal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">Friedrichs &amp; Rothe, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>Três dimensões do conceito conferem sua função sensibilizadora. Primeiro, no conceito de crime estatal-corporativo, rejeita-se a noção de desvio organizacional como uma ação discreta; segundo, destaca-se o caráter relacional horizontal entre instituições políticas e econômicas; e, terceiro, ressalta-se o seu caráter relacional, que configura relações verticais nos níveis individual, institucional e político-econômico da ação organizacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Kramer et al<italic>.,</italic> 2002</xref>).</p>
			<p>A contribuição significativa da literatura sobre o <italic>state-corporate crime</italic> foi a de retornar à participação do Estado nos estudos sobre os danos sociais causados por corporações, centralizando as discussões na compreensão de como o Estado produz, participa ou auxilia a produção do crime corporativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>). Ao evidenciar a profundidade da relação entre o Estado e as corporações e sua natureza simbiótica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs, 2012</xref>), o conceito de crime estatal-corporativo permitiu o reconhecimento das inúmeras configurações por meio das quais governos e corporações tornam-se parceiros no crime, o que colocou em questão se grupos e instituições privados ou de “fora” do Estado podem ser mobilizados para projetar o poder estatal; além disso, passou-se, também, a questionar a visão unidimensional da regulação como atividade estatal capaz de controlar as corporações (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ao analisar o contexto transnacional em que as corporações atuam, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Michalowski e Kramer (2007</xref>) defenderam uma expansão do conceito de crime estatal-corporativo, de modo que passe a abranger diversos danos causados por corporações transnacionais. Com o espectro da globalização, o reconhecimento das dimensões transnacionais e globais do crime corporativo propiciou a formação de um novo corpo na literatura focado na criminologia global, cujo foco está na compreensão dos impactos da globalização em crimes e na justiça criminal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Friedrichs, 2007</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Rothe &amp; Friedrichs, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Sem deixar de reconhecer a importância dos avanços da literatura, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs (2012</xref>) destaca, no conceito de crime estatal-corporativo, uma contradição potencial limitante, qual seja, enfatizar os aspectos relacionais entre Estado e corporações e, ao mesmo tempo, as ações desviantes. Com isso, permitiu-se que estudos relacionados ao conceito priorizassem a compreensão de eventos discretos, em vez de examinar a natureza e a dinâmica das relações Estado-corporação (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs, 2012</xref>).</p>
			<p>Um problema recorrente nas pesquisas sobre o termo é a falta de clareza em relação às fronteiras entre o Estado e as entidades corporativas, o público e o privado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2020</xref>). Diante do cenário de estreita ligação entre Estado e atividade corporativa, a ponto de as corporações sempre existirem dentro e fora das regras estabelecidas por ele, estudos mais recentes sobre o tema têm alertado para a necessidade de ampliação desse paradigma rumo a uma compreensão mais aprofundada da relação simbiótica entre o Estado e as corporações (Rothe &amp; Medley, 2019; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>São as organizações que fornecem as oportunidades para o uso do conhecimento especializado necessário à execução do crime; portanto, merecem mais atenção da ciência organizacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>). Muitos dos estudos desenvolvidos por criminologistas e sociólogos sobre as causas e consequências do crime corporativo apoiaram-se nas teorias organizacionais existentes para buscar explicações mais específicas do contexto organizacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Glebovskiy, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Oliveira, 2015</xref>). No entanto, o que os criminologistas consideram como crime corporativo é compreendido, não raras vezes, como fenômeno fora do domínio dos estudos organizacionais. Há, nesse sentido, uma falta de priorização do campo sobre os danos provocados às vítimas dos desvios organizacionais que extrapolam a intencionalidade individual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>A (RE)PRODUÇÃO DO CRIME ESTATAL-CORPORATIVO QUE VIOLA DIREITOS HUMANOS</title>
			<p>Como um corpo de conhecimento diverso e organizado que se orienta por uma visão crítica sobre a ordem econômica, política e cultural dos regimes coloniais, neocoloniais e do imperialismo, a perspectiva pós-colonialista visa à compreensão da complexa condição pós-colonial resultante dos encontros coloniais em seus diferentes contextos e resultados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee &amp; Prasad, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Westwood &amp; Jack, 2007</xref>). Para além da extração e exploração de riquezas, o colonialismo ocidental moderno, em sua estrutura complexa de trocas e industrialização, estabeleceu, de forma única, uma relação de dependência entre as colônias e as nações coloniais. Nessa relação, os colonizadores buscaram concretizar a hegemonia ocidental nas dimensões econômica, política, militar, cultural e ideológica (Prassad, 2003; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Westwood &amp; Jack, 2007</xref>).</p>
			<p>Para a compreensão dos crimes estatais-corporativos como resultado de práticas que visam à acumulação e à reprodução do capitalismo neoliberal, tem relevância o conceito de necrocapitalismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee, 2008</xref>), que localiza a operacionalização do imperialismo nas estruturas institucionais e nos processos que permeiam as relações de Estados-nação, instituições e corporações multinacionais. Esse conceito está voltado aos diferentes tipos de poder: institucional, econômico e discursivo, que amparam as noções normalizadas e incontestadas de desenvolvimento, atraso e economias de subsistência, as quais impedem o surgimento de outras narrativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee, 2008</xref>). Ancorado em perspectivas teóricas da filosofia política, Banerjee (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">2008</xref>) realiza uma reflexão para desenvolver o seguinte conceito de necrocapitalismo: “[...] práticas capitalistas específicas de acumulação que envolvem violência, desapropriação e morte” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>, p. 1543).</p>
			<p>Como o termo necrocapitalismo é potente para o avanço da compreensão do crime estatal-corporativo, resgatamos concepções teóricas envolvidas na sua formulação. A definição de estado de exceção proposta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Agamben (1998</xref>) tem como ponto de partida os trabalhos de Michel Foucault e Hanna Arendt e a noção de soberania de Carl Schmitt para argumentar que “[...] soberano é quem decide sobre o estado de exceção” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Agamben, 2002</xref>, p. 7). Agamben (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1998</xref>) explora a noção de <italic>homo sacer e</italic> vida nua para situar a condição do sujeito que ocupa “[...] um espaço tanto fora (e, portanto, dentro) do direito divino e do direito jurídico” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee, 2008</xref>, p. 1544). Na posição de <italic>homo sacer</italic>, o sujeito é despido da qualidade de cidadão (<italic>bíos)</italic>, e, uma vez sem direitos, o valor de sua vida é reduzido a sua qualidade biológica (zoé), o que a torna, portanto, descartável (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Agamben, 2002</xref>).</p>
			<p>Com base na configuração do Estado-nação moderno, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">Agamben (2004</xref>, p. 13) problematiza o fato de que o “[...] o estado de exceção tende cada vez mais a se apresentar como o paradigma de governo dominante na política contemporânea”. Nesse recorrente estado de exceção, uma prática para tratar de eventos excepcionais configura-se como técnica de governo habitual. Emerge daí, então, o poder de decidir o valor da vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee, 2008</xref>), visto que, ao ser capturada pelo estado de exceção, a vida assume sua dimensão nua, ou seja, aquela em que se pode matar sem cometer homicídio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Agamben, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ao analisar o exercício da soberania nos contextos de colonialismo e <italic>apartheid</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Mbembe (2003</xref>, p.123) parte da crítica ao conceito de biopolítica proposta por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">Foucault (2008</xref>) para propor que“[...] o exercício do direito de matar, deixar viver ou expor à morte”, para propor a necropolítica, que envolve a subjugação da vida ao poder da morte e à criação de “[...] mundos de morte, novas e únicas formas de existência social em que vastas populações são submetidas a condições de vida que lhes conferem o status de mortos-vivos” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Mbembe, 2003</xref>, p. 146).</p>
			<p>Na inversão entre vida e morte operada pela necropolítica, a soberania significa o poder de fabricar uma multidão de pessoas que, ao longo de sua existência, vivem no limite da vida e enfrentam continuamente a morte, perante as quais há pouco ou nenhum sentimento de responsabilidade e justiça (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Mbembe, 2003</xref>). Em guerras genocidas e de limpeza étnica, nos desastres ambientais, na pobreza em nível global, a morte como uma fonte de valor inaugura um espaço novo, no qual, o capital avança seus limites anteriores, convertendo a morte em fonte de lucro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chamayou, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Fontes, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Haskaj, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Na economia política contemporânea, o relacionamento entre Estados, corporações, órgãos supranacionais e agências multilaterais possibilita a privatização necrocapitalista de uma soberania que cria estados de exceção em contextos (pós)coloniais, nos quais o necropoder obtém lucro por meio de práticas de acumulação que envolvem a gestão da violência e da morte (Barnejee, 2008). Nesse contexto, a necrocorporação é a dimensão do lado mais sombrio da corporação “[...] aquele espaço em que a morte é produzida pela subjugação da vida pelo poder da morte” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Medeiros &amp; Silveira, 2017</xref>, p. 50).</p>
			<p>Mediante a concepção de necrocapitalismo, o imperialismo, ainda vigente, torna-se mais bem compreendido na esteira da globalização do modo de produção capitalista. As práticas imperialistas, em sua dinâmica específica de exploração, possibilitam que a apropriação da mais-valia ocorra pelo deslocamento do <italic>locus</italic> de exploração para determinadas áreas geográficas em benefício de outras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Banerjee et al., 2009</xref>). Somam-se a isso as políticas econômicas neoliberais, por meio das quais as relações entre mercado, Estado e sociedade são reorganizadas; com isto, uma nova divisão internacional do trabalho é estabelecida e programas de ajuste estrutural são impostos aos países em desenvolvimento, para garantir um clima favorável aos investimentos e aos negócios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Alamgir &amp; Banerjee, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Novas práticas de acumulação por espoliação (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Harvey, 2007</xref>) possibilitam, ao capitalismo, a exploração de novas áreas, de modo que o capital global avança cada vez mais na esfera pública, operando regimes capitalistas extrativistas por meio do poder institucional (Fundo Monetário Internacional [FMI], Organização Mundial do Comércio [OMC], Banco Mundial) e econômico (corporações, Estados-nação), para submeter as populações locais à dominação privada, mediante arranjos institucionais em que normas, crenças, práticas e discursos sustentam e normalizam as condições opressivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Martí &amp; Fernández, 2013</xref>).</p>
			<p>Com a intensificação do processo de globalização, o poder flui pela estruturação das redes de comunicação, que permitem a interconectividade global. No entanto, isso não implica a extinção de formas mais antigas de poder sobre as populações que existem nos territórios nacionais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Slater, 2004</xref>). Na medida em que novos espaços de governança surgem, novas questões e articulações entre atores são mobilizadas para expandir formas de controle e influência. No âmbito dos estudos sobre a governança transnacional e suas discussões, a visão de que a globalização ampliou os mercados para atuação das corporações é acompanhada pela ideia de um processo de erosão do <italic>status</italic> do Estado-nação enquanto responsável pela organização espacial das relações e transações sociais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Kourula et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>No entanto, no interior dessas relações de poder, para justificar a atuação do Estado na governança da conduta empresarial, a globalização tem sido mobilizada tanto para explicar a falta de autoridade e fragilidade dos governos na regulação dos negócios, quanto para justificar a ampliação das configurações de governança privada, intergovernamental ou multissetorial em áreas problemáticas como de regulamentação trabalhista e meio-ambiente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Kobrin, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Kourula et al., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Pattberg, 2005</xref>). Desse modo, uma parcela significativa da regulação dos negócios é realizada por instituições privadas, público-privadas, multissetoriais ou da sociedade civil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Bartley, 2022</xref>) e os processos de regulação, em certa medida, podem refletir a capacidade dos grupos de interesse reguladores em capturar o Estado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Djankov et al. 2002</xref>).</p>
			<p>Numa perspectiva pós-colonial, na configuração das sociedades globalizadas, há o reconhecimento do deslocamento do poder do nível nacional (Estado-nação) para o global (capital e corporações), com a cumplicidade e apoio dos estados do Norte e Sul do globo, onde as formas imperiais de dominação euro-americana assumem novas configurações, por exemplo, quando realizam a manutenção da dependência dos países do Sul global e seus governos impõem a mudança neoliberal a suas populações (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Amin-Khan, 2012</xref>). Nessa configuração, um impasse de difícil solução consiste em encontrar uma maneira de preservar a autonomia individual <italic>vis-à-vis</italic> a liberdade de mercado, a fim de garantir, simultaneamente, a suficiência econômica e a dignidade social para todos, ainda que o direito internacional considere esses dois objetivos como centrais em seu regime de direitos humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Michalowski, 2008</xref>).</p>
			<p>Em um contexto de compartilhamento ambíguo de responsabilidades, como a literatura de Negócios e Direitos Humanos (NDH) argumenta, configuram-se as lacunas de governança (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Ruggie, 2008</xref>) em que violações de direitos humanos acontecem. Em alguma medida, o conceito de necrocapitalismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>) permite-nos olhar essas lacunas como uma configuração específica de estado de exceção, criada com base em uma soberania compartilhada entre Estados e corporações em suas ambições capitalistas.</p>
			<p>Enquanto a regulação das relações econômicas globais e seus problemas inerentes, como as violações de direitos humanos cometidas por corporações, parecem exigir um novo quadro regulatório de referência sobre o qual ainda não existe consenso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Porumbescu &amp; Pogan, 2019</xref>), iniciativas como Princípios Orientadores das Nações Unidas sobre Negócios e Direitos Humanos (UNGPs) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">United Nations, 2011</xref>) falham em reconhecer e incorporar a maximização do lucro como imperativo que sustenta o sistema capitalista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Bittle &amp; Snider, 2013</xref>) e subestimam a centralidade das relações de poder envolvidas na implementação desse sistema (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Rosser et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>Nesse contexto contraditório, uma reflexão pertinente, no âmbito da criminologia, sobre o papel do Estado na governança corporativa defende que, em sua história concreta, a globalização, com a participação dos Estados capitalistas avançados, propiciou a construção de um regime jurídico internacional favorável às empresas, em que corporações multinacionais operam em um contexto cada vez mais internacional e de forma cada vez mais livre (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">Tombs, 2007</xref>). Na esteira desse processo, o direito assume uma dimensão cada vez mais ambivalente nas análises criminológicas, por sua capacidade, nas formas leves e duras, de controlar ou facilitar os crimes corporativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Haines &amp; Macdonald, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>A produção capitalista do século XXI está cada vez mais organizada em cadeias internacionais de valor controladas por corporações transnacionais, nas quais a transferência de valor econômico percorre a fragmentação da produção em diversos níveis e conecta a produção, principalmente do Sul global, ao consumidor final e aos cofres financeiros das corporações, localizadas no Norte global (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">Suwandi et al., 2019</xref>). As corporações transnacionais aproveitam os privilégios que possuem no regramento jurídico nacional e internacional para maximizar os lucros por meio de sua mobilidade de sua produção e explorar as condições de mercado mais propícias dos países anfitriões, onde a lei e a regulamentação são limitadas e os custos de conformidade são menores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Marmo &amp; Bandiera, 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>As alterações significativas nas relações entre mercado, Estado e sociedade, e a divisão internacional do trabalho (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Alamgir &amp; Banerjee, 2019</xref>) possibilitam que o nexo mercado-estado continue a pavimentar o caminho para práticas de acumulação que resultam em violência (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">Banerjee, 2018</xref>). Em contrapartida, desde meados da década de 1970, o Estado atua, cada vez mais, como espectador, facilitador e conspirador na materialização do crime estatal-corporativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>), um fenômeno que permanece em contínua produção e reprodução, amparado na banalidade da vida cotidiana neoliberal, cujas condições estão articuladas para facilitar e legitimar sua ocorrência (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Como a criminologia crítica argumenta, apesar da resistência organizada frente à regulação das atividades econômicas, as corporações sempre reconheceram os processos regulatórios como mecanismos capazes de ameaçar ou facilitar a acumulação de capital, na medida em que todo regulamento é, simultaneamente, uma proibição e uma permissão (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Michalowski, 2020</xref>). Nesse sentido, o apelo para compreensão do crime estatal-corporativo, para além da fragilidade coercitiva dos Estados e dos momentos de ruptura na relação público-privada, aponta para o entendimento da natureza das relações entre Estados e corporações mediante suas fronteiras borradas e seus interesses sobrepostos, reconhecendo a atuação do Estado como facilitador da lucratividade dos negócios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Como pontuam <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Medeiros et al. (2020</xref>), os termos “<italic>state crime</italic>” e “<italic>state-corporate crime</italic>” podem ser equivocadamente confundidos, no entanto, o primeiro restringe-se à sobreposição de dois fenômenos: quando ocorrem violações dos direitos humanos e o desvio organizacional do Estado, enquanto o segundo agrega o envolvimento de corporações.</p>
			<p>No âmbito das violações de direitos humanos por corporações, não há dados empíricos relevantes que indiquem que as corporações beneficiam-se de um bom histórico de direitos humanos ou mesmo que as empresas que os violaram são economicamente desvantajosas, o que reflete uma lógica racional de mercado, na qual os riscos financeiros e comerciais relacionados às violações dos direitos humanos são superados pelo lucro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Banerjee, 2014</xref>).</p>
			<p>Apesar de a noção de “direitos humanos” atual pressupor que “humano” é uma categoria universal que faz justiça a todos, de forma recorrente a mobilização do conceito de humano, em conversas gerais, pela mídia, em seminários e conferências universitárias, deixa fora da humanidade uma parcela significativa da população global (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Mignolo, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Sen, 2004</xref>). Assim, é preciso reconhecer que as violações podem sinalizar, em alguns casos, um consenso geral entre políticos e sociedade, que normaliza a ideia de que algumas vidas humanas importam menos do que outras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Mayblin et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ainda que os debates sobre direitos humanos tenham alterado, de forma significativa, a forma como elites políticas globais, ativistas transnacionais e alguns líderes nacionais falam sobre política e justiça, a mensuração e percepção dos impactos reais é mais difícil de discernir, considerando as variações substanciais entre regiões, em suas diferentes histórias coloniais e pós-coloniais e diferentes processos que condicionam as relações estado-sociedade (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Hafner-Burtonron &amp; Ron, 2007</xref>). Uma reforma do sistema global de ordenação dos direitos humanos precisa considerar uma noção mais emancipatória de dignidade humana e a organização de um sistema de justiça global e compensação material dentro de e entre o Norte e Sul globais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Regilme, 2019</xref>).</p>
			<p>No contexto das violações dos direitos humanos cometidas por corporações, quando colocamos em cena a escravização moderna e seu recorrente flagrante, estamos diante não só de um crime corporativo, mas, também, de uma prática de gestão viável e lucrativa criada no regime colonial e que permanece operando no sistema político-econômico atual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Banerjee, 2021</xref>). A escravidão moderna está inserida em um processo de normalização da morte e dos danos infligidos aos trabalhadores como efeito inevitável das formas capitalistas de trabalho e de organização econômica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Supostamente, para combater a escravização, a partir da defesa de um sistema de governança humanitária, Estados e corporações articulam mecanismos de <italic>soft law</italic> e responsabilidade corporativa, para se posicionarem como atores benevolentes que atuam de forma engajada no combate à escravidão. No entanto, na prática, iniciativas de legislações nacionais sobre o tema, não só mantêm as condições que permitem que a escravização aconteça nas cadeias de suprimento do Sul global, como apoiam a elaboração de um consentimento frente ao problema, ao desviar a atenção das corporações como ator responsável por esse crime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Marmo &amp; Bandiera, 2022</xref>).</p>
			<p>Ao permitir a incorporação das contribuições funcionais do trabalho escravizado, a globalização neoliberal permite que determinadas populações colham os benefícios de um sistema econômico global pós-colonial moldado por histórias de dominação e exploração (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Strecker, 2022</xref>). Assim, o avanço na direção da erradicação da escravização moderna passa pelo reconhecimento de que a origem do problema está em um modelo de negócio que persegue de forma incansável a fabricação de baixo custo para maximização dos lucros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">Banerjee, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>Na indústria extrativa global, inúmeros conflitos violentos entre corporações e populações locais acontecem, majoritariamente, em países que foram colonizados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Banerjee, 2018</xref>), onde muitas violações de direitos humanos são materializadas. Inserida em uma economia política centrada no desenvolvimento, a extração de recursos naturais e a desapropriação de terras para fins econômicos são caracterizadas por relações mutáveis entre atores estatais e corporativos. Em suas relações, esses atores determinam os arranjos de governança de acesso, controle e direitos de propriedade sobre recursos e terras e, nesse processo, negam às comunidades locais os meios de subsistência derivados da terra (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Banerjee et al., 2023</xref>). Até mesmo quando monopolizada por Estados, a extração de recursos recorre ao discurso de desenvolvimento, para justificar e reforçar os modos de produção capitalistas baseados na destruição da natureza e promover desempoderamento político das comunidades indígenas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Torres-Wong, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>Em caso de conflitos nos contextos de extração de recursos, os processos deliberativos de governança implementados por meio de políticas de responsabilidade social corporativa podem ser incapazes de acomodar legitimidades concorrentes que estão presentes, por conduzir uma busca por consenso deliberativo que oculta processos de dominação e desautoriza espaços de diferença e convivência (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">Banerjee et al., 2023</xref>). De forma consonante, a criminologia crítica tem alertado para as limitações das abordagens de regulação centradas na formação de consenso que não consideram os sistemas mais amplos de desigualdade e poder envolvidos em um contexto cujas estratégias regulatórias emergem e são aplicadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Davies &amp; Malik, 2021</xref>).</p>
			<p>Desde a declaração de 1948, na imbricação entre negócios e direitos humanos, uma lacuna de responsabilização permanece delineada, até hoje ainda não foram definidas as instituições responsáveis por monitorar, prevenir e reparar as violações aos direitos humanos cometidas por organizações corporativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Santoro, 2015</xref>). Nos últimos anos, cada vez mais corporações transnacionais têm respondido a processos legais em suas nações de origem, por estarem envolvidas em violações de direitos humanos e danos ambientais cometidos nos países anfitriões (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Lindt, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Em defesa da efetivação de um tratado sobre negócios e direitos humanos, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Bilchitz (2016</xref>) argumentou que o instrumento poderia estabelecer dispositivos para soluções jurídicas que atendam a uma série de lacunas, ambiguidades e doutrinas engessadas do atual quadro de direito internacional que afeta negativamente os direitos das pessoas impactadas por atividades corporativas.</p>
			<p>De fato, a legislação de estados nacionais sobre o envolvimento de empresas em violações de direitos humanos ainda é incipiente. Apesar de os sistemas jurídicos nacionais, em sua maioria, já estabelecerem alguns dispositivos eficazes de resposta, como o conceito de responsabilidade corporativa e parâmetros de culpabilidade corporativa, bem como mecanismos de acusação e sanção, os Estados não têm atuado de forma proativa quando ocorre o envolvimento corporativo em abusos grosseiros dos direitos humanos. No que se refere ao direito internacional público, as complexidades doutrinárias precisam ser enfrentadas para regulação de atores não estatais (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">McConnell, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>As discussões sobre o desenvolvimento de novas normas jurídicas internacionais relativas a negócios e direitos humanos foram impulsionadas por diferentes suposições empíricas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Kirkebo &amp; Langford, 2018</xref>), como a crença de que Estados e corporações veem os direitos humanos e a responsabilidade social como compromissos de custo e alcance zero em termos materiais, cuja adesão possibilita o fortalecimento da imagem e o desvio da atenção à necessidade de regulações nacionais sobre o tema (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Simmons, 2009</xref>). Em contrapartida, na área do Direito, o desenvolvimento de mecanismos legais de forma vinculativa, conhecidos como <italic>hard law,</italic> é reforçado por uma posição de neutralidade, mas guiado pela lógica de que, se a iniciativa implica uma diminuição do poder das corporações, um novo espaço abre-se para que novos atores possam exercer influência (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Kirkebo &amp; Langford, 2018</xref>).</p>
			<p>Avaliando a possibilidade de concretização de um tratado vinculativo internacional, McConnel (2017) identificou alguns desafios que precisam ser resolvidos. Primeiro, as obrigações internacionais devem ser conceituadas e definidas de forma convincente e clara no que se refere ao respeito, à identificação dos titulares de deveres e à atribuição de responsabilidades. Segundo, dada a natureza bilateral da responsabilização na esfera internacional, a atribuição de condutas infratoras aos Estados precisa estabelecer disposições de cumplicidade e a devida diligência. Assim, sob uma abordagem holística, é possível definir uma distinção conceitual entre os diferentes atos ilícitos cometidos pelos múltiplos atores, bem como avaliar as contribuições causais de múltiplos atores na implementação de um sistema de remediação baseado na ideia de responsabilidade solidária. Por fim, as dificuldades de delimitação das obrigações internacionais dirigidas aos atores empresariais e os modos de cumprimento envolvem questões de natureza política de resolução difícil e demorada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Maritan &amp; Oliveira, 2020</xref>).</p>
			<p>Não obstante, a existência de um quadro jurídico regulatório não impede a ampliação e o reforço de outras ações em curso baseadas em mecanismos de regulação não vinculativos, realizadas por Estados nacionais para melhorar o respeito corporativo pelos direitos humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Maritan &amp; Oliveira, 2020</xref>; Nolam, 2016). As normas jurídicas são importantes por estimular o desenvolvimento de ferramentas e instrumentos regulatórios mais brandos, que, ajustados, podem alcançar uma gama de empresas e setores produtivos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">Ganesan, 2016</xref>), bem como oferecer um meio útil para criticar as ações danosas cometidas pelos poderosos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Paine, 2013</xref>). A forma como a regulação da prática dos atores não estatais é endossada tem implicações diretas teoricamente no nível operacional prático, e, na ausência de fiscalização, fundamentos teóricos mais robustos já contribuem fornecendo um ponto de partida para futuros desenvolvimentos normativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">McConnell, 2017</xref>).</p>
			<p>Apesar dos avanços e debates promissores realizados no âmbito da responsabilidade social corporativa (RSC), negócios e direitos humanos no que tange à responsabilidade das transnacionais sobre violações, é importante ampliar as discussões sobre a temática considerando as teorizações sobre as concepções hierárquicas do valor humano, já que as violações de direitos humanos podem sinalizar, em alguns casos, um consenso geral, entre políticos e sociedade, de que algumas vidas humanas importam menos do que outras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Mayblin, 2020</xref>). Diante disso, é preciso considerar que o discurso soberano vigente em relação aos direitos humanos emergiu durante o período colonial, e, para além dos direitos formulados e reconhecidos, também é necessário entender a materialidade desse discurso e como ele condiciona e limita o campo das violações (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Azoulay, 2015</xref>).</p>
			<p>As configurações que antecedem as violações de direitos humanos por corporações são complexas e, conforme a literatura percorrida, há obstáculos de difícil transposição para a superação do problema. Ao analisar o fenômeno sob a perspectiva pós-colonialista, inserimos a questão como parte dos graves problemas da ordem social neoliberal compartilhada, na qual os regimes neoliberais, visando manter o consentimento dos governados, permanecem administrando as contradições que emergem entre o impulso para acumulação do capital e a busca permanente por novos modos de extração de lucro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Snider, 2020</xref>). Assim, a discussão teórica realizada procurou avançar na compreensão do problema como consequência de um sistema amplo de desigualdade e poder, que se apoia em relações simbióticas e dialéticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe, 2020</xref>).</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS</title>
			<p>Este ensaio é fruto de nossas reflexões sobre a produção e reprodução de crimes corporativos que violam os direitos humanos. Com o amparo da literatura crítica criminológica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>), exploramos de que forma Estados e corporações, em suas relações imbricadas e cotidianas, articulam as condições necessárias à materialização de crimes corporativos que violam direitos humanos, o que explica, em parte, a falta de avanços significativos para a responsabilização corporativa sobre tais violações, mesmo já sendo reconhecidas pela literatura de responsabilidade social corporativa e negócios e direitos humanos e problematizadas na produção sobre irresponsabilidade corporativa.</p>
			<p>O ensaio traz contribuições para o campo da Administração, especialmente aos de Estudos Organizacionais e Administração Pública, pois, ao adicionar um olhar pós-colonialista, para a compreensão do problema (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>), reconhecemos que a insistência na responsabilização dos Estados em detrimento das corporações não só representa um desafio para reparação dos danos às pessoas cujos direitos são violados, mas, também, indica uma articulação deliberadamente organizada e constituída historicamente para garantir a manutenção de uma ordem mais ampla centrada na manutenção dos interesses capitalistas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe, 2020</xref>). Nossa discussão conduz ao questionamento sobre a concepção de direitos humanos e sua regulação se constituírem em uma forma de reproduzir os interesses privados do capitalismo, bem como pavimenta a construção da desresponsabilização das corporações. Ainda, buscamos contribuir com a discussão sobre a atuação do Estado na atividade corporativa, tanto em termos de participação como de facilitação. A interdependência política e econômica entre Estados e corporações evidencia que os processos corporativos tornam os crimes possíveis. Portanto, o valor das discussões sobre o crime estatal-corporativo reside na possibilidade de servir de lente para a análise de diversos setores industriais e identificação de fatores de vulnerabilidade do setor, ou seja, aqueles que estão estruturalmente incorporados e que levam ao crime e a danos como parte dos processos corporativos.</p>
			<p>Ao afirmar que os crimes corporativos violadores de direitos humanos são produzidos e reproduzidos com a participação do Estado nas lacunas de governança estabelecidas pela globalização, em uma relação simbiótica entre Estados e corporações, a qual possibilita a normalização dessas práticas criminosas, avançamos no diálogo entre o campo dos Estudos Organizacionais e o campo da Criminologia que trata de crimes corporativos. Não se trata de uma novidade em si, visto que o poder das corporações e os danos causados por elas são problematizados de forma consistente, em ambos os corpos teóricos. No entanto, trazer esse fenômeno para ser discutido no campo dos Estudos Organizacionais contribui para a compreensão da natureza multidisciplinar das violações de direitos humanos cometidas por corporações, não cabendo ao campo negligenciar a temática.</p>
			<p>A aproximação dos dois campos de estudos ampliou nossa visão sobre a dinâmica das corporações e de suas consequências para a sociedade, o que nos fez vislumbrar questões de pesquisa que podem beneficiar o desenvolvimento do campo, a saber: investigar os casos de violações de direitos humanos no Brasil cometidas por corporações, por meio de análises centradas nas relações interorganizacionais entre Estados e corporações envolvidas no contexto dos crimes, bem como nos processos regulatórios estabelecidos; explorar os repertórios mobilizados por cidadãos comuns em redes sociais <italic>online</italic> e nos veículos da imprensa nacional para neutralizar as violações de direitos humanos cometidas por corporações, a fim de avançar a compreensão sobre a normalização dessa prática criminosa no contexto brasileiro; avançar na crítica às origens dos direitos humanos, analisando sua abrangência e suas exclusões.</p>
			<p>Nossas reflexões provocadas pelos valiosos comentários nos pareceres recebidos levaram-nos ao entendimento de que soluções são possíveis. Por exemplo, a abolição de modelos de negócios do tipo “empresas guarda-chuva” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">Elliot, 2014</xref>), ou, ainda, regulamentações mais severas sobre operações com riscos de violações contra os direitos humanos e o meio ambiente. Em termos de regulamentações, há de se considerar a ausência de apoio político para leis mais severas, dado que as “bancadas” têm forte apoio setorial para defender as demandas da indústria.</p>
			<p>Uma lacuna identificada durante esta pesquisa foi a falta de articulação entre as literaturas que abordam os investimentos transnacionais em países com vazios institucionais e as que tratam dos crimes corporativos decorrentes do aproveitamento, por parte das corporações transnacionais, das fragilidades relativas aos marcos legais destes países. Desenvolver essas articulações teóricas com base em pesquisas empíricas pode, potencialmente, beneficiar o campo na compreensão desses fenômenos. Por fim, tendo como base uma estrutura teórica pós-colonialista, faz-se necessário, ainda, explorar como as políticas de desenvolvimento regionais no Brasil têm incorporado a temática dos direitos humanos no que se refere às políticas de fomento aos negócios.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
		<ack>
			<title>AGRADECIMENTOS</title>
			<p>O presente trabalho foi realizado com apoio do CNPq, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - Brasil pelo apoio aos projetos de pesquisa 423009/2021-4 e 313900/2021-3. Bolsista Produtividade do CNPq Cíntia Rodrigues de Oliveira.</p>
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			<title>DISPONIBILIDADE DE DADOS</title>
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			<title>PARECERISTAS</title>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
				<p>Os dois revisores não autorizaram a divulgação de suas identidades.</p>
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			<title>RELATÓRIO DE REVISÃO POR PARES</title>
			<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
				<p>O relatório de revisão por pares está disponível neste URL: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://periodicos.fgv.br/cadernosebape/article/view/90536/85321">https://periodicos.fgv.br/cadernosebape/article/view/90536/85321</ext-link>
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		<front-stub>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/1679-395120230009x</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>ARTICLE</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>State-corporate crimes and human rights violations: an essay on the symbiotic relationship between states and corporations</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8712-6102</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Ferreira</surname>
						<given-names>Letícia Gracielle Vieira</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
					<role>Conceptualization (Equal)</role>
					<role>Writing - original draft (Lead)</role>
					<role>Writing - review &amp; editing (Equal)</role>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7999-9002</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Oliveira</surname>
						<given-names>Cíntia Rodrigues de</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">1</xref>
					<role>Conceptualization (Equal)</role>
					<role>Writing - original draft (Lead)</role>
					<role>Writing - review &amp; editing (Equal)</role>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia - MG, Brasil</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
					<p>Letícia Gracielle Vieira Ferreira - Ph.D. student in Administration from the Postgraduate Program in Administration at the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU). E-mail: leticia.ferreira@uftm.edu.br</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
					<p>Cíntia Rodrigues de Oliveira - Ph.D. in Administration from Fundação Getulio Vargas (FGV EAESP); Professor at the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU). E-mail: cintia@ufu.br</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by" id="fn12">
					<p>Hélio Arthur Reis Irigaray (Fundação Getulio Vargas, Rio de Janeiro / RJ - Brazil). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9580-7859</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="edited-by" id="fn13">
					<p>Fabricio Stocker (Fundação Getulio Vargas, Rio de Janeiro / RJ - Brazil). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6340-9127</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>In this essay, we seek to expand the understanding of state-corporate crimes that violate human rights by approximating the literature on state-corporate crime with the field of organizational studies. We argue that corporate crimes that violate human rights are produced and reproduced with the state’s participation in the governance gaps established by globalization in a symbiotic relationship that enhances their normalization. Our argument advances toward unveiling the problem as a configuration resulting from a deliberately organized and historically constituted articulation based on power relations, which aims to guarantee a social order centered on maintaining capitalist interests in which the exploration of life, death, and violence are normalized.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords:</title>
				<kwd>State-corporate crime</kwd>
				<kwd>Violence</kwd>
				<kwd>Corporations</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>INTRODUCTION</title>
				<p>Several news stories highlighting organizations’ involvement in criminal activities underline the pervasive nature of corporate crimes in today’s society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>). This can be partly attributed to the deliberate efforts of governments and corporations to obscure corporate wrongdoings and their subsequent harms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Barak, 2015</xref>). This is further facilitated by a legal system that does not punish these infractions, coupled with the argument that capital accumulation promotes citizen welfare (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Barak, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Even scholars and economists analyzing economic development and international business recognize the absence of integrated and multidisciplinary conceptual frameworks that address the complex and comprehensive consequences of international business on economy and society (Giuliane &amp; Macchi, 2014). In analyzing the globalization process and its impacts on developing economies, economists have warned about the mismatch between private incentives and societal costs and benefits (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">Stiglitz, 2006</xref>) and the distributive effects of globalization and its potential to exacerbate poverty (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">Rodrik, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Transnational corporations, the most visible embodiment of globalization, are powerful players with the influence to shape the global governance agenda (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">Ruggie, 2007</xref>). They use the legal foundation and infrastructure states provide to function as the primary institutions through which capitalism sustains itself despite its harmful effects on human life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>Over the past two decades, there has been a rise in litigation against corporations for human rights violations, but compensation is rarely awarded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Schrempf-Stirling &amp; Wettstein, 2017</xref>). Within the scope of soft law initiatives and stemming from the UN Global Compact, the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs) were established (UN, 2011). This pioneering initiative achieved a broad consensus regarding the corporate responsibility to respect human rights (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">Schrempf-Stirling et al., 2022</xref>). However, its vulnerability lies in the absence of legally binding effects and the inability to impose penalties, shifting the responsibility for its implementation to the discretion of States and the goodwill of corporations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Bernaz, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Baneerje, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>Often, by emphasizing the goals of their shareholders and prioritizing maximum profit, transnational corporations leverage the dynamics of global capitalism to invest in emerging economies strategically. These economies are primarily characterized by weak governance and prevalent corruption. Corporations are only penalized for human rights violations if their actions are classified as international crimes in such contexts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">Bernaz, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">Ullah et al., 2021</xref>). Conversely, host governments often overlook these transgressions to bolster the economy and attract foreign direct investment, neglecting to demand that transnational corporations adhere to human rights respect standards (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">Chu, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">Ratner, 2001</xref>).</p>
				<p>This study focuses on transnational corporations as presented in postcolonial literature. It views these corporations as central players in advancing and spreading capitalism and imperialistic economic practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">Mir et al., 2008</xref>). Therefore, we identify these corporations as the driving force of capitalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">Sklair, 2002</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">2016</xref>). Their power extends beyond national borders, often emerging as unregulated wealth-creation machines potentially harmful to society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Bakan, 2004</xref>). Included among these is the “necrocorporation,” which, through its actions or omissions, commits corporate crimes against life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Medeiros &amp; Silveira, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>The criminological literature has studied the criminal arrangements between States and corporations. Within this literature, categories have emerged as theoretical tools to comprehend crimes committed by powerful entities. These categories also address the historical absence of legal redress for damages inflicted by influential actors who have, over time, evaded criminalization and stigmatization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">Barak, 2015</xref>). In this literature, “State-corporate crime” focuses on understanding how the State either participates in or facilitates corporate crimes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>While establishing modern organizations and their control mechanisms, a significant portion of regions that are now impoverished had their wealth expropriated by colonial powers. These powers also implemented a homogenizing discourse in their colonies that denied the legitimacy of the knowledge and organizational methods of these places (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">Mir et al., 2003</xref>). Postcolonial thought offers fresh insights into the history of this process in postcolonial societies, drawing from critiques of the unequal relationships between the Global North and the Global South (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">Oliveira &amp; Silveira, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Given the significant threat of corporate crimes by corporations and states, endangering the preservation and continuation of life and the rising trivialization and normalization of death within the prevailing capitalist order, this study contends that corporate crimes infringing upon human rights are produced and perpetuated with State involvement. This unfolds within the governance gaps established by globalization, cultivating a symbiotic relationship between States and Corporations, normalizing such crimes. This topic is significant in the realm of organizational studies. While international literature has expressed interest nationally, research in the field of Administration - particularly Public Administration - on corporate and State-corporate crime is still in its infancy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Medeiros et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>). Thus, the value of this research encompasses a conceptual discussion on corporate crimes with State involvement and highlights the limitations of examining this organizational phenomenon in isolation, which overlooks its complexity.</p>
				<p>First, we provide a theoretical context that examines symbiotic relationships between the State and corporations. Then, from a postcolonial perspective, we deepen our understanding of State-Corporate crimes related to human rights violations. Finally, we present our findings and offer suggestions for further research.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>THE SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATES AND CORPORATIONS</title>
				<p>The assertion that the extent of harm caused by corporate crimes surpasses all other crimes cannot be refuted (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>). However, definitions of corporate crime primarily focus on corporate breaches concerning legal standards. The most widely accepted definition of corporate crime is rooted in a legalistic viewpoint, which describes it as corporate actions that contravene criminal laws and lead to the company’s conviction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">Baucus &amp; Dworkin, 1991</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">Schlegel, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">Shapiro, 1990</xref>).</p>
				<p>Within this context, corporate crimes encompass several illegal actions or omissions by organizations and their representatives for the organization’s benefit. They exploit legal gaps in the global economy and engage in creative compliance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B98">Van Erp &amp; Huisman, 2017</xref>). Nonetheless, the prevailing views on the subject and the regulated practices regarding crime and its control are primarily guided by economic interests and the requirements of capitalism. Consequently, many harmful actions undertaken by individuals and groups possessing political and economic power are often regarded as non-criminal activities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">Bernat &amp; Whyte, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Specifically, the State-Corporate crime paradigm, introduced by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Kramer and Michalowski in the 1990</xref>s, offers a robust and well-developed conceptual framework. This framework is built upon over eight decades of theoretical exploration aimed at understanding crimes committed by those in power, starting with Sutherland’s work (1949) on white-collar crimes and extending to political and organizational crimes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">Griffin &amp; Spillane, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>The updated definition of State-Corporate crime is as follows: “illegal or socially harmful actions that arise when one or more political governance institutions work directly with one or more institutions responsible for economic production and distribution” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">Kramer &amp; Michalowski, 1990</xref>, p. 4, as cited in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Kramer et al., 2002</xref>). Elaborating on this definition, Kramer and Michalowski (1993) introduced two categorizations for State-Corporate crime: “State-initiated: occurs when corporations, contracted by the government, engage in organizational misconduct, either through explicit instruction or implicit governmental consent; and state-facilitated occurs when state regulatory institutions fail to restrain rogue economic activities. This failure can be due to direct collusion between corporations and governments or because both parties share objectives that might be hindered by stricter regulation” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Kramer et al., 2002</xref>).</p>
				<p>The theoretical framework on State-Corporate crime is significant because it highlights the harmful and sometimes fatal consequences of collaborative initiatives between States and corporations. These collaborations are rooted in their mutual interests (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">Bradshaw, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Friedrichs &amp; Rothe, 2014</xref>) and a parallel legal system. This raises discussions about the State’s deficiencies in regulation caused by internal and external factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Medeiros et al., 2020</xref>). Additionally, this framework elucidates how certain injurious and socially detrimental actions are not considered criminal at the crossroads of corporate and State interests. This could be due to the absence of legal or regulatory stipulations or the inertia of the players responsible for upholding the laws (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Kramer et al., 2002</xref>).</p>
				<p>A common thread among all Corporate-State crimes is their standardization and normalization through laws and regulatory processes. In most cases, the harm results from adherence to the State’s directives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>). Crimes committed by States and large corporations always involve interaction and cooperation, whether implicit or explicit, between these two entities. Therefore, disentangling State interests from corporate interests is challenging because of the overlapping agendas among players in organizational and State hierarchies and the numerous connections that arise when individuals assume high-ranking roles in corporate and State domains (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Friedrichs &amp; Rothe, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>Three dimensions confer their sensitizing function. First, corporate State crime challenges organizational deviance as an isolated act. Second, it underscores the horizontal relational nature between political and economic institutions. Lastly, the concept exposes the relational nature of Corporate-State crime, which establishes vertical relationships across individual, institutional, and political-economic levels of organizational action (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">Kramer et al., 2002</xref>).</p>
				<p>The significant contribution of literature on State-Corporate crime has been its focus on re-emphasizing the role of the State in studies examining the social harm caused by corporations. The central discussion revolves around understanding how the State initiates, participates in, or aids in corporate crime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>). By highlighting the depth of the relationship between the State and corporations and their symbiotic nature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs, 2012</xref>), the concept allowed for recognizing the numerous scenarios in which governments and corporations become partners in crime. This raises questions about whether private groups and institutions outside the State can be leveraged to project State power. It also challenges the one-dimensional view of regulation as a State activity that can control corporations (Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020).</p>
				<p>Analyzing the transnational context in which corporations operate, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">Michalowski and Kramer (2007</xref>) argued that State-Corporate crime should be broadened to encompass the diverse harms caused by transnational corporations. Amid globalization, acknowledging the transnational and global dimensions of corporate crime has given rise to a new body of literature in global criminology. This literature primarily aims to understand the implications of globalization on crimes and the criminal justice system (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">Friedrichs, 2007</xref>).</p>
				<p>While recognizing advancements in the literature on State-Corporate crime, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs (2012</xref>) highlights a potential limiting contradiction because the concept emphasizes the relational aspects between the State and corporations and their deviant actions. This has led studies on the subject to often prioritize understanding specific incidents, thereby overlooking the nature and dynamics of State-Corporation relationships (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs, 2012</xref>).</p>
				<p> A recurring theme in research on this topic is the lack of clarity regarding the boundaries between the State and corporate entities and between the public and private sectors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2020</xref>). If the State and corporate activities are closely intertwined, such that corporations consistently operate within and beyond the regulations set by the State, recent studies on the subject have highlighted the need to expand this paradigm to gain a deeper understanding of the symbiotic relationship between the State and corporations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe &amp; Medley, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">Tombs, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>Organizations provide opportunities for applying specialized knowledge essential for committing crimes, and thus, they warrant greater attention from organizational science (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">Van Erp, 2018</xref>). Numerous studies conducted by criminologists and sociologists on the causes and consequences of corporate crime have relied on existing organizational theories to gain a more in-depth understanding of the organizational context (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">Glebovskiy, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">Oliveira, 2015</xref>). However, what criminologists classify as corporate crime is often seen as a phenomenon outside organizational studies. Consequently, the harm caused to victims of organizational misconduct that goes beyond individual intent is underpioritized (Van Erp, 2018).</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>THE (RE)PRODUCTION OF CORPORATE-STATE CRIME THAT VIOLATES HUMAN RIGHTS</title>
				<p>Postcolonialism is a diverse and structured body of knowledge rooted in a critical view of economic, political, and cultural systems of colonial, neocolonial, and imperialist regimes. This perspective aims to understand the intricate postcolonial conditions stemming from different colonial encounters and their respective outcomes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee &amp; Prassad, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Westwood &amp; Jack, 2007</xref>). Beyond simply extracting and exploiting resources, modern Western colonialism established a dependency relationship between colonies and their colonies, with its complex structure of trade and industrialization. In this context, colonizers sought to establish Western hegemony across economic, political, military, cultural, and ideological dimensions (Prassad, 2003; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B99">Westwood &amp; Jack, 2007</xref>).</p>
				<p>Necrocapitalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>) is significant in understanding State-Corporate crimes as a consequence of practices aimed at the accumulation and perpetuation of neoliberal capitalism. This concept situates the workings of Imperialism within the institutional structures and processes that influence the relationships between nation-states, institutions, and multinational corporations. Necrocapitalism delves into various forms of institutional, economic, and discursive power that uphold the widely accepted and unchallenged notions of development, backwardness, and subsistence economies that suppress alternative narratives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>). Drawing from theories in political philosophy, Banerjee (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">2008</xref>) offers a theoretical examination, defining Necrocapitalism as “specific capitalist practices of accumulation that involve violence, dispossession, and death” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>, p. 1543).</p>
				<p>As Necrocapitalism helps the understanding of State-Corporate crime, we delve into the theoretical concepts at its foundation. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">Agamben’s (1998</xref>) definition of the state of exception is based on the works of Michel Foucault and Hannah Arendt, and it also builds on Carl Schmitt’s concept of sovereignty. He argues that “the sovereign is the one who decides on the state of exception” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Agamben, 2002</xref>, p. 7). Agamben (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1998</xref>) introduces the concept of <italic>homo sacer</italic> and bare life to describe the condition of an individual who exists in “a space that is simultaneously outside and, consequently, within both divine law and legal law” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>, p. 1544). In the role of a <italic>homo sacer</italic>, the individual is deprived of their citizen status (bios). Without rights, the value of their life is reduced to mere biological existence (zoé), making them disposable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">Agambem, 2002</xref>).</p>
				<p>In the framework of the modern nation-state, Agambem (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">2004</xref>, p. 13) problematizes the idea that “[...] the state of exception is increasingly becoming the dominant governing paradigm in contemporary politics.” Within this recurring state of exception, practices meant to handle exceptional events become regular governmental techniques. For example, within this recurring state of exception, the power to determine the value of life becomes evident (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>). When life is ensnared in this state of exception, it reveals its bare dimension, meaning a state where one can take a life without committing homicide (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">Agambem, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>When analyzing sovereignty within colonialism and apartheid, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Mbembe (2003</xref>, p. 123) begins by critiquing Michel Foucault’s (2005) notion of biopolitics, defined as “the exercise of the right to kill, to let live, or to expose to death.” Building on this, Mbembe introduces the concept of Necropolitics. This pertains to the subjugation of life to the power of death, leading to the creation of “death-worlds” - unique and novel forms of social existence where vast populations are subjected to living conditions that confer upon them the status of the living dead (Mbembe, p. 146).</p>
				<p>In Necropolitics, where life and death are inverted, sovereignty represents the power to create countless individuals who live on the brink of existence, constantly facing death. For these individuals, there is minimal to no sense of responsibility or justice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">Mbembe, 2003</xref>). In genocidal wars, ethnic cleansing, environmental catastrophes, and widespread poverty, death becomes a valuable commodity. This creates a new domain in which capital transcends its former boundaries, turning death into a source of profit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">Chamayou, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">Fontes, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">Haskaj, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>In the modern political economy, the relationship between States, Corporations, supranational entities, and multilateral agencies facilitates Necrocapitalist privatization of sovereignty. This creates exceptional states in (post)colonial contexts, where Necropower derives profit from accumulation practices, encompassing the management of violence and death (Barnejee, 2008). Therefore, “Necrocorporation” can be understood as the darkest aspect of a corporation: “the domain where death is a consequence of life being subjugated by the force of death” (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">Medeiros &amp; Silveira, 2017</xref>, p. 50).</p>
				<p>Using the concept of Necrocapitalism, it becomes evident that Imperialism, which is still prevalent today, is deeply rooted in the globalization of the capitalist mode of production. Given their unique dynamics of exploitation, imperialist practices allow for the appropriation of surplus value by shifting the focal point of exploitation to certain geographic regions for the advantage of others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">Banerjee et al., 2009</xref>). Moreover, through neoliberal economic policies, the relationships between the market, the state, and society are reorganized; a new international labor division is established; and structural adjustment programs are imposed on developing countries to ensure a favorable environment for investment and business (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Alamgir &amp; Banerjee, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>New accumulation methods through dispossession (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">Harvey, 2005</xref>) allow capitalism to explore new territories. Therefore, global capital is increasingly advancing into the public sphere, implementing extractive capitalist regimes through institutional power (such as the IMF, WTO, and World Bank) and economic mechanisms (such as corporations and nation-states). This leads to the subjugation of local populations to private domination within institutional arrangements where established norms, beliefs, practices, and discourses support and normalize oppressive conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">Martí &amp; Fernández, 2013</xref>).</p>
				<p>With intensifying globalization, power is channeled through communication networks that enable global interconnectivity. However, this does not mean that older forms of power exerted over populations within national territories are obsolete (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">Slater, 2004</xref>). As new governance spaces arise, new issues and relationships between players emerge, aiming to broaden their control and influence. Within the studies on transnational governance and its debates, the perspective that globalization has expanded markets for corporate operations is paired with the notion of a declining role of the nation-state in overseeing the spatial organization of social relations and transactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">Kourula et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>However, within these power dynamics, to justify the State’s role in overseeing business conduct, globalization has been cited both to explain the lack of authority and weakness of governments in business regulation and to justify the expansion of private, intergovernmental, or multi-sector governance setups in challenging areas such as labor regulation and environmental concerns (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">Kobrin, 2015</xref>; Koutula et al., 2019; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">Pattberg, 2005</xref>). Thus, a substantial portion of business regulation is carried out by private institutions, public-private partnerships, multi-sectoral entities, or civil society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">Bartley, 2022</xref>). Additionally, the regulatory processes, to some extent, might mirror the ability of regulated interest groups to influence or capture the State (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">Djankov et al., 2002</xref>).</p>
				<p>In a postcolonial view, as societies become more globalized, there is an understanding that power is shifting from the national level (nation-states) to the global stage (capital and corporations). This shift is backed by both Northern and Southern global States, where the traditional Euro-American imperial domination takes on new forms. This is evident in how the countries of the Global South continue to be dependent and play a role in pushing neoliberal changes onto their populations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">Amin-Khan, 2012</xref>). In this context, a challenging dilemma is finding a way to maintain individual autonomy in the face of market freedom, aiming to ensure economic sufficiency and social dignity for everyone, even though international law views these two goals as central to its human rights regime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">Michalowski, 2008</xref>).</p>
				<p>In ambiguous responsibility sharing, as the BHR literature suggests, governance gaps emerge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">Ruggie, 2008</xref>), where human rights violations occur. To a certain degree, the concept of Necrocapitalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>) allows us to perceive these gaps as a distinct state of exception, formed by shared sovereignty between States and Corporations driven by their capitalist ambitions.</p>
				<p>While the regulation of global economic relations and their inherent issues, such as human rights violations by corporations, seems to call for a new regulatory framework on which there is still no consensus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">Porumbescu &amp; Pogan, 2019</xref>), initiatives such as the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGPs) overlook the profit maximization drive that underpins capitalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">Bittle &amp; Snider, 2013</xref>). They also underestimate the pivotal role power relations play in their implementation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">Rosser et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>In this contradictory context, a relevant consideration within criminology about the State’s role in corporate governance suggests that throughout its history, globalization, with the involvement of advanced capitalist States, has led to an international legal regime favorable to businesses where multinational corporations operate in an increasingly international context and with growing freedom (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">Tombs, 2007</xref>). Following this process, the role of law becomes increasingly ambivalent in criminological analyses. This is due to its capacity, in its soft and hard forms, to regulate or enable corporate crimes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">Haines &amp; MacDonald, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>Capitalist production in the 21<sup>st</sup> century is increasingly structured around international value chains dominated by transnational corporations. Within these chains, the transfer of economic value necessitates the fragmentation of production across various stages. This links production, primarily from the Global South, to end consumption and the financial reserves of corporations based in the Global North (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">Suwandi et al., 2019</xref>). In this context, transnational corporations leverage their privileges in national and international legal frameworks to maximize profits by mobilizing their production. They also exploit favorable market conditions in host countries, where laws and regulations are limited, and compliance costs are lower (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Marmo &amp; Bandiera, 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>The significant changes in the relationships between the market, State, society, and the international division of labor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">Alamgir &amp; Banerjee, 2019</xref>) allow the market-state nexus to continue paving the way for accumulation practices that result in violence (Banerjee, 2018). Conversely, since the mid-1970s, the State has increasingly played roles as a spectator, facilitator, and conspirator in the emergence of State-Corporate crime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>). This phenomenon is consistently produced and reproduced, anchored in the routine of neoliberal daily life, with conditions shaped to facilitate and legitimize its existence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>Critical criminology suggests that despite organized resistance against the regulation of economic activities, corporations consistently view regulatory processes as mechanisms that could threaten or enhance capital accumulation. Every regulation acts as a restriction and an authorization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">Michalowski, 2020</xref>). Therefore, understanding State-Corporate crime goes beyond considering the coercive weaknesses of states or ruptures in public-private relationships. It involves examining the complex interplay between States and corporations, with their intertwined interests and ambiguous boundaries, acknowledging the State’s role in fostering business profitability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B100">Whyte, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">Medeiros et al. (2020</xref>) differentiate between the terms “State crime” and “State-Corporate crime,” which are often erroneously interchanged. The former concerns the convergence of two phenomena: human rights violations and organizational misconduct by the State, while the latter involves the participation of corporations.</p>
				<p>Regarding corporate human rights violations, no substantial empirical evidence suggests that corporations benefit from a commendable human rights record. Nor is there evidence that companies that violate human rights face economic setbacks. This situation reflects market rationality, where potential profits overshadow the financial and trade risks associated with human rights violations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">Banerjee, 2014</xref>).</p>
				<p>Although the prevailing concept of “Human Rights” assumes that “human” is a universal category that represents everyone fairly, the frequent invocation of the term in general discussions, in the media, and at seminars and university conferences often excludes a significant segment of the global population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">Mignolo, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">Sen, 2004</xref>). Thus, it is crucial to understand that, in some instances, human rights violations can reflect a broad consensus among politicians and the general public that some human lives matter less than others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Mayblin et al., 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>While debates on human rights have significantly transformed the discourse of global political elites, transnational activists, and some national leaders on politics and justice, gauging and comprehending the impacts remains challenging. This difficulty arises from the significant variations between regions, influenced by their distinct colonial and postcolonial histories and the processes that shape State-Society relations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">Hafner-Burtonron &amp; Ron, 2007</xref>). In this context, any global human rights framework reform should embrace a more emancipatory concept of human dignity. Additionally, it should focus on establishing a system of global justice and material compensation that bridges the gap between the Global North and South (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">Regilme, 2019</xref>).</p>
				<p>In the context of human rights violations committed by corporations, when we address modern-day slavery and its frequent exposure, we are confronting a corporate crime that violates human rights and a profitable management practice rooted in the colonial era that continues to operate within the current political-economic system (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">Banerjee, 2020</xref>). In this light, modern slavery exemplifies the normalization of death and harm to workers as an inevitable consequence of capitalist work structures and economic organization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>To combat enslavement, supposedly in the interest of promoting a humanitarian governance system, States and corporations employ soft law mechanisms and corporate responsibility measures. They position themselves as benevolent players actively engaged in the fight against slavery. However, in practice, national legislation initiatives sustain the conditions that allow for enslavement within supply chains of the Global South and foster a form of consent to the issue as they divert attention away from corporations as the players responsible for this crime (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">Marmo &amp; Bandiera, 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>By recognizing the functional contributions of enslaved labor, neoliberal globalization allows certain populations to benefit from a postcolonial global economic system shaped by histories of domination and exploitation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">Strecker, 2022</xref>). In this context, the path toward eradicating modern slavery hinges on the understanding that the root of the issue is in a business model that relentlessly seeks low-cost manufacturing to maximize profits (Banerjee, 2020).</p>
				<p>In the global extractive industry, numerous violent conflicts occur between corporations and local communities, primarily in countries that were colonized (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Banerjee, 2018</xref>), where many human rights violations occur. Within a political economy focused on development, the extraction of natural resources and the expropriation of lands for economic gain highlight the evolving dynamics between State and corporate players. In their interactions, these players shape the governance structures related to access, control, and property rights over resources and lands. Therefore, they often deprive local communities of their livelihoods tied to these lands (Banerjee et al., 2018). Even when the extraction is under State control, it leans on development rhetoric to legitimize and bolster capitalist production systems that cause environmental degradation and politically disempower indigenous communities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">Torres-Wong, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>In conflicts within resource extraction contexts, the deliberative governance processes implemented through corporate social responsibility (CSR) policies may be unable to accommodate the competing legitimacies. This is because they pursue a deliberative consensus that hides domination processes and denies spaces for difference and coexistence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">Banerjee et al., 2018</xref>). Similarly, critical criminology has highlighted the limitations of consensus-based regulatory approaches that do not consider the broader systems of inequality and power in which regulatory strategies emerge and are implemented (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">Davies &amp; Malik, 2021</xref>).</p>
				<p>A significant accountability gap has persisted since the 1948 declaration concerning the intersection of business and human rights (BHR). To this day, institutions responsible for monitoring, preventing, and addressing human rights violations by corporations remain undefined (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">Santoro, 2015</xref>). In recent years, transnational corporations have increasingly faced legal actions in their home countries due to their involvement in human rights abuses and environmental damages in host nations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">Lindt, 2020</xref>).</p>
				<p>In advocating for the implementation of a treaty on business and human rights, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">Bilchitz (2016</xref>) argued that such a treaty could introduce legal mechanisms to address the existing gaps, ambiguities, and rigid doctrines in the current international law framework that adversely affect the rights of individuals impacted by corporate activities.</p>
				<p>In reality, national legislation on the involvement of corporations in human rights violations is still in its early stages. While most national legal systems have already implemented effective response mechanisms, such as the principle of corporate responsibility, standards for corporate culpability, and mechanisms for prosecution and punishment, states have not been proactive in addressing corporate involvement in severe human rights abuses. Regarding public international law, doctrinal complexities must be tackled when regulating non-state players (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">McConnell, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>Various empirical assumptions have propelled discussions about developing new international legal norms concerning business and human rights (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Kirkebo &amp; Langford, 2018</xref>). One such assumption is the belief that States and Corporations perceive human rights and social responsibility as commitments with significant costs and minimal benefits that, when adhered to, can strengthen an entity’s image and shift attention away from national regulations on the subject (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">Simmons, 2009</xref>). Conversely, in the legal realm, the evolution of binding legal mechanisms, often referred to as hard law, emerges from a stance of neutrality. Still, it operates on the premise that if an initiative results in reduced corporate power, it creates an avenue for new players to exert influence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">Kirkebo &amp; Langford, 2018</xref>).</p>
				<p>In assessing the feasibility of establishing a binding international treaty, McConnel (2017) pinpointed several challenges that need addressing. First, international obligations should be formulated and articulated clearly and convincingly, especially in identifying duty-holders and assigning responsibilities. Second, given the bilateral nature of accountability on the international stage, attributing wrongful actions to states requires defining provisions related to complicity and due diligence. Thus, through a holistic perspective, it is feasible to draw clear distinctions between various wrongful deeds committed by different players and to evaluate the shared contributions of these players when setting up a remediation system rooted in the concept of collective responsibility. Lastly, delineating international obligations targeting business players and their compliance methods brings forth political challenges that are complex and lengthy to tackle (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Maritan &amp; Oliveira, 2022</xref>).</p>
				<p>Even though a regulatory legal framework exists, it does not hinder the growth and strengthening of initiatives based on non-binding regulatory mechanisms undertaken by national states to enhance corporate adherence to human rights (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">Maritan &amp; Oliveira, 2022</xref>; Nolam, 2016). Legal norms are important because they promote the development of more lenient regulatory tools and instruments. When properly adjusted, these can cater to various companies and productive sectors (Ganesan, 2016). Additionally, they provide a useful means to critique the harmful actions committed by the powerful (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">Paine, 2013</xref>). However, the theoretical endorsement of regulations concerning non-state players has direct repercussions at a practical operational level. In scenarios lacking oversight, stronger theoretical bases can also pave the way for future normative advancements (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">McConnell, 2017</xref>).</p>
				<p>While there have been significant advancements and discussions within the realms of CSR and Business and Human Rights concerning the accountability of transnational companies for human rights violations, it is crucial to broaden the conversation. This includes considering theories about hierarchical conceptions of human value, as in some cases, human rights violations might indicate a broader consensus among politicians and society that certain human lives matter less than others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">Mayblin et al., 2020</xref>). Furthermore, it is essential to recognize that the prevailing discourse on human rights originated during the colonial period. Beyond the rights formulated and recognized, it is also essential to understand the substance of this discourse and how it shapes and confines the realm of such violations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">Azoulay, 2015</xref>).</p>
				<p>The dynamics leading to human rights violations by corporations are complex, and the literature reviewed indicates significant challenges in addressing this issue. Examining the phenomenon through a postcolonial perspective places this issue within the broader challenges of the shared neoliberal social order. In this framework, neoliberal regimes strive to maintain public consent, constantly managing the contradictions between the drive for capital accumulation and the ongoing pursuit of new profit extraction methods (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">Snider, 2020</xref>). This theoretical discussion deepens our understanding of the problem, framing it as a result of an extensive system of inequality and power underpinned by symbiotic and dialectical relationships (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe, 2020</xref>).</p>
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				<title>FINAL REMARKS</title>
				<p>This essay reflects on the production and perpetuation of corporate crimes that violate human rights. Drawing from the critical criminological literature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">Tombs &amp; Whyte, 2020</xref>), we explore how States and Corporations create conditions that allow for corporate crimes violating human rights in their intertwined and everyday relationships. This partly explains the lack of significant progress in holding Corporations accountable for human rights violations as recognized in the CSR and Business and Human Rights literature and highlighted in the Corporate Irresponsibility literature.</p>
				<p>This study provides valuable insights into the field of Administration, particularly regarding organizational studies and Public Administration. By incorporating a postcolonial perspective (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">Banerjee, 2008</xref>), we recognize that focusing primarily on holding States accountable rather than Corporations poses a challenge in addressing the harm to individuals whose rights are violated and points to a deliberately organized and historically established framework aimed at preserving a broader order rooted in protecting capitalist interests (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">Rothe, 2020</xref>). Our discussion leads us to question whether human rights and their regulation serve as a means to reproduce the private interests of capitalism and pave the way for the absolution of corporate responsibility. Additionally, we contribute to the discussion on the State’s role in corporate activity, participation, and facilitation. The political and economic interdependence between States and corporations demonstrates that corporate processes can enable crimes. Therefore, the value of discussions on corporate State-related crime lies in the potential to serve as a lens for analyzing various industrial sectors and identifying vulnerabilities within them. These vulnerabilities are structurally embedded and lead to crime and damage as part of corporate processes.</p>
				<p>In asserting that corporate crimes violating human rights are created and perpetuated with the State’s participation due to governance gaps established by globalization, we highlight a symbiotic relationship between States and corporations that enables their normalization. This advances the field of organizational studies and the area of criminology that addresses corporate crimes. It is not a new concept, given that both theoretical frameworks consistently address the power of Corporations and their detrimental effects. However, introducing this phenomenon into organizational studies helps to understand the multidisciplinary nature of human rights violations committed by corporations. Therefore, this field should not neglect this topic.</p>
				<p>The merging of the two fields of study expanded our understanding of corporate dynamics and their societal implications. This allowed us to identify research questions that can benefit the field’s development: investigate instances of human rights violations in Brazil committed by corporations, focusing on analyses of inter-organizational relations between States and the involved corporations in crimes and the established regulatory processes; explore the strategies employed by ordinary citizens on social and in national media outlets to counteract human rights violations by corporations, to understand further the normalization of this criminal practice in the Brazilian context; delve deeper into the origins of human rights, examining their scope and exclusions.</p>
				<p>Our reflections, prompted by the valuable feedback we received, led us to understand that solutions can be envisioned, for example, the abolition of business models such as “umbrella companies” (Elliot, 2014) or even stricter regulations on operations that pose risks to human rights and the environment. Regarding regulations, one must consider the lack of political support for stricter laws, given that the industry’s lobbying groups have significant backing to defend their interests.</p>
				<p>A gap highlighted in this study is the linkage between the literature on transnational investments and the institutional voids in host countries, the Corporate crimes arising from exploiting the legal weaknesses in these nations by transnational corporations. Deepening this theoretical connection through empirical research could greatly enhance the field’s understanding of these phenomena. Finally, drawing from a postcolonial theoretical framework, we explore how regional development policies in Brazil have integrated human rights themes in relation to business promotion policies.</p>
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				<title>ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</title>
				<p>This work was carried out with support from CNPq, National Council for Scientific and Technological Development - Brazil in research projects 423009/2021-4 and 313900/2021-3. CNPq Productivity Scholarship. Cíntia Rodrigues de Oliveira.</p>
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					<p>[Translated version] Note: All quotes in English translated by this article’s translator.</p>
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					<label>DATA AVAILABILITY</label>
					<p>The dataset supporting the results of this study is not publicly available.</p>
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				<title>REVIEWERS </title>
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					<p>The two reviewers did not authorize the disclosure of their identities.</p>
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				<title>PEER REVIEW REPORT </title>
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					<p>The peer review report is available at this URL: https://periodicos.fgv.br/cadernosebape/article/view/90536/85321 </p>
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