In recent years, the role of education for social justice has been emphasized and multiple research also included relevant variables such as educational inclusion, attention to diversity, or school segregation (Dowd, 2018). Through education for social justice, people will be more inclusive and, therefore, will be able to reduce and eliminate socio-educational exclusion, as well as enhance human rights and develop critical judgment towards equality (Belavi & Murillo, 2016). Achieving social justice in education requires the active participation of different collectives. This implies a change in approach within educational communities to transform the culture, policies, and practices of educational institutions (Azorín & Ainscow, 2020). Furthermore, social justice education aims to prevent school segregation. The recognition dimension can increase visibility and integration opportunities for minorities (Simón et al., 2019). Additionally, the redistribution dimension is a central aspect of social justice (Albalá Genol et al., 2021). Those who believe that taxes are appropriately redistributed to reduce inequalities will support tax payment (Rezrazi & Gangloff, 2020). In contrast, individuals who oppose social justice tend to support tax reduction or abolition from an individualistic perspective (Gandolfi & Mills, 2022).

In addition to social philosophy, politics, and education, the field of social psychology has made important theoretical contributions to understanding social justice and its current applications. Thus, interpersonal justice occurs when people are treated with courtesy, dignity, and respect by their immediate or superior leaders (Albalá-Genol et al., 2023; Cropanzano & Greenberg, 1997). Furthermore, distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of the resources received (Törnblom & Vermunt, 1999) and suggests that justice is achieved when there is proportionality between worker’s wages and their contributions (Thiago et al., 2023). More recently, the concept of “restorative justice” has emerged from the socio-educational field (United Nations, 2006) and is defined as a way of holding offenders accountable, repairing the harm caused to victims, and providing support and assistance to offenders to encourage their reintegration into the community (Suvall, 2009).

According to this model, the three dimensions of social justice are related to prejudice against various social groups, such us migrants and LGBTIQ+ individuals, both within and outside of the educational environment (Etchezahar et al., 2014).

Several macro-social causes influence the development and maintenance of beliefs and prejudices towards those who experience unjust situations (Freire, 2005). These factors perpetuate the status quo and hinder the achievement of social justice for vulnerable groups (McWhirter & McWha-Hermann, 2021). Previous studies (Graham-Bailey et al., 2019; Guo-Brennan & Guo-Brennan, 2020) have demonstrated that varying degrees of social justice can impact different forms of prejudice (towards migrants, people in poverty, and people belonging to the LGBTIQ+ community, among others). On the one hand, regarding prejudice towards people living in poverty (Bastias et al., 2022), beliefs about redistribution are critical since they are based on individualistic attributions, which may exclude the possibilities offered by a given context for economic development. On the other hand, prejudice towards migrants may be associated with the recognition dimension, as it can be used to explore openness to diversity (Paiba Alzate, 2022). Finally, prejudice towards LGBTIQ+ individuals (Etchezahar et al., 2016) may be linked to both the recognition and representation dimensions (Herek, 2000). Although the empirical study of the association between social justice and prejudice (Etchezahar et al., 2014) is very recent, it is an essential ongoing field to prevent and reduce the consequences within and outside educational environments.

The present study had three objectives: first, to analyze differences in levels of social justice based on age, gender, region, and educational level of the participants; second, to explore the relationships between dimensions of social justice, beliefs about educational inclusion of migrants, beliefs about gender equality in education, and the attitudes towards tax payment; and finally, to examine to which extent each dimension of social justice contributes to different forms of prejudice.

This study had three research hypotheses: 1. Differences in the dimensions of social justice will be found as a function of age -with older individuals scoring higher-, gender -with women scoring higher-, and educational level -with more educated individuals scoring higher-; 2. Positive relationships will be found between the three dimensions of social justice and beliefs about the inclusion of migrants in education, beliefs about gender equality in education, and attitudes towards tax payment; 3. Each dimension of social justice will negatively predict related prejudices (redistribution will predict prejudice against poor people; recognition and representation will predict prejudice against homosexual people and migrants).

First, the relationships and statistical differences between the dimensions of social justice, gender, age, educational level, and region were analyzed. Regarding Hypothesis 1, gender differences were observed in all three dimensions of social justice. Women scored significantly higher than men in the dimensions of recognition and representation, and still significant but with a smaller effect in the dimension of redistribution. These results suggest that it may be more complicated for people to consider social justice in terms of redistribution, possibly because this dimension implies a more plausible economic impact for both genders (e.g., payment of taxes and distribution of material goods, among others). These results replicate those found in previous studies (Albalá Genol et al., 2021; Etchezahar et al., 2022) and show that women are more prosocial than men in general and especially in the dimensions of social justice (Bénabou & Tirole, 2006). About age, negative relationships were observed with all three dimensions, although with low strength: the younger the person, the higher the scores in social justice. Previous studies are unclear on this issue: while some studies observed partial relationships between age and the dimensions of social justice (Albalá Genol et al., 2021), others did not (Etchezahar et al., 2022; Murillo et al., 2014). Regarding participants’ educational level, statistically significant differences were observed for recognition and representation but not for redistribution. These results could imply that the educational system plays a crucial role in promoting beliefs in intergroup equality (Cochran-Smith et al., 2009; Sutton & Douglas, 2005) and fostering the development of diverse group representation (Graham-Bailey et al., 2019; McWhirter & McWha-Hermann, 2021). In terms of redistribution, it does not seem to be related to the educational level of the participants. This could indicate an unclear concept of justice circumscribed to a certain level of education (Nussbaum, 2012), but in each subgroup we can find different ideological perspectives (Etchezahar et al., 2022; Sapon-Shevin, 2013). Finally, no differences were found in any of the three dimensions of social justice according to the region of residence. This result was not expected, given the variability of beliefs hypothesized in each region of the country in terms of recognition, redistribution, and representation (Féliz & Millón, 2022; INDEC, 2019).

In any case, a conclusion is that the analysis of representations of social justice should not be limited to age alone but should also take into account other psychosocial factors such as prosocial thinking (values, ideology, among others). The results indicate that the representations of social justice are not always uniform across the three dimensions studied. This highlights the importance of considering their relationship with other variables. The level of education is key to developing ways of thinking that are more linked to social justice (especially in terms of recognition and representation), which could position education as an environment that promotes more just societies. The lack of significant differences according to the geographical regions within Argentine should be contrasted in future studies. In this way, a more balanced and nationally representative sample is suggested as necessary. It is important to note that this study did not consider variables such as ideology, socioeconomic level, and ethnicity of the participants. Future studies should considerer these variables.

Regarding Hypothesis 2, we examined the relationship between the dimensions of social justice and beliefs about the inclusion of immigrants and gender-diverse individuals in the educational environment, as well as attitudes towards paying taxes, through the lens of Westheimer’s (2015) advocacy for inclusive education from a comprehensive, contextualized standpoint. As postulated by Belavi and Murillo (2016), the three dimensions of social justice are significantly related to the variables examined in this study. Both redistribution and recognition play a central role in promoting the inclusion of migrants and people with diverse gender identities in the educational sphere while influencing attitudes towards tax payment. Redistribution is correlated with attitudes towards paying taxes -a cornerstone of retributive justice- because it involves a greater financial contribution from those in a more favorable economic position to support those most in need (Rezrazi & Gangloff, 2020). Furthermore, it emphasizes the need to incorporate diversity in public spheres, especially in education (Dainez & Smolka, 2019). Therefore, both dimensions of social justice -redistribution and recognition- are essential for the success of this process. Representation is also significantly correlated with the three variables under study, although to a lesser extent. Previous studies (Etchezahar et al., 2022; Honneth, 1997) have indicated that although representation is crucial to the exercise of social justice, individuals often do not perceive it as relevant, as greater emphasis is placed on addressing inequalities stemming from economic and cultural injustices. In our study, a weak relationship was observed between this dimension and attitudes towards paying taxes. It is plausible that, as suggested by Rezrazi and Gangloff (2020), if taxpayers perceive a lack of quality public services in return for their taxes, they may not feel adequately represented and may lean towards a more individualistic perspective (Gandolfi & Mills, 2022).

Third, Hypothesis 3 was confirmed, as all dimensions of social justice influence different forms of prejudice. Regarding prejudice against people living in poverty, the role of redistribution is paramount, while recognition and representation also play a secondary role. Societies such as Argentine, where nearly 42% of the population lives in poverty (INDEC, 2019), require the redistribution of wealth to ensure that it is returned to the population in the form of essential public services (Fraser, 2008; Fraser, 2012; Sen, 2009), which is particularly crucial for people living in poverty (Unterhalter & Brighouse, 2007). A common thread in this type of prejudice is the attribution of causality (Bastias et al., 2022; Etchezahar et al., 2022), which often focuses on internal factors within individuals (e.g., “Poor individuals are unwilling to work”) (Féliz & Millón, 2022). This attribution overlooks external conditions that typically pose significant barriers for individuals to escape poverty (e.g., access to better job opportunities or possibilities for personal growth in the workforce). Consequently, public support for resource redistribution operates on the premise of attributing external causality, underscoring that societal change does not depend solely on individual efforts but requires collective strategies backed by institutional support (McWhirter & McWha-Hermann, 2021; Sutton & Douglas, 2005). Based on this empirical research evidence, the development of programs aimed at promoting intercultural coexistence is essential. Future socio-educational programs should promote the three dimensions of social justice, fostering a more prosocial and intercultural perspective on migration among citizens.

Regarding prejudice against Latin American immigrants, as posited, recognition plays a fundamental role, with redistribution and representation also contributing to a lesser extent. Migrant individuals often have a especial need for recognition, as the reasons for migratory processes and the inherent vulnerabilities associated with migration are often overlooked (Féliz & Millón, 2022). Argentine, in particular, is experiencing different waves of migration, with recent influxes coming from Latin American countries (Etchezahar et al., 2022). Recognizing differences and empathizing with their circumstances are crucial steps towards fostering more equitable societies (Belavi & Murillo, 2016; Elenbaas et al., 2020). Our study shows that individuals’ beliefs about recognition directly impact prejudicial attitudes towards Latin American immigrants. However, it is essential to emphasize that the items used to measure the recognition dimension primarily focus on the inclusion and respect of migrant individuals. Therefore, they may be contributing to a better prediction of prejudice against Latin American immigrants. It is important to note that this study does not differentiate between countries. Future studies could explore whether there is a difference in prejudice towards Latin American immigrants based on their country of origin.

Finally, regarding prejudice toward homosexual people, our results indicate that recognition plays the most important role, followed to a lesser extent by redistribution. However, no differences were observed concerning representation. Prejudice towards gender diversity, along with migration issues, serves as a key indicator of recognition of diversity in a broader sense (Albalá Genol et al., 2021). However, despite the social justice policies associated with this issue (e.g., equal marriage laws, transgender quotas in government agencies, etc.), we expected the representation dimension to have a predominant impact, but its contribution was not significant. Therefore, it may be necessary to increase the visibility of various gender and sexual diversity policies, as many individuals may be currently unaware of them (Etchezahar et al., 2022). It is relevant to consider evidence, such as that presented in the current study, regarding various policies promoting coexistence and tolerance. Educational policies should focus on providing a more comprehensive education that acknowledges the significant impact of the conceptualization of social justice (redistribution, recognition, representation) on the development of prejudice levels.

Until now, previous studies have not worked with the three dimensions of social justice (Etchezahar et al., 2023), at least not from Fraser’s (2008) perspective, to analyze their relationships with variables such as the educational inclusion of migrants, attitudes towards paying taxes, and gender. This new research perspective (see Albalá Genol et al., 2021) has emerged following the development of the Social Justice Scale. Additionally, the study is original because there has been scarce empirical research on social justice in Latin America and in Argentine in particular. Furthermore, no studies have been found that analyze the influence that each dimension of social justice could have on different expressions of prejudice (e.g., people in poverty, immigrants, and homosexuals). These aspects highlight the relevance and originality of the work, which calls for future studies to further delve into.